He also suggests they may have been involved in atrocities against civilians. Humera was shelled from the direction of the Eritrean–Ethiopian border for two days around 9–11 November. For months Ethiopia and Eritrea flatly deny the involvement of Eritrean forces in the conflict. Photo by: European Union in Eritrea via Facebook. The Abiy-appointed interim government estimates that some 4.5 million people now need food assistance. [112] Two days later Prime Minister Abiy claimed no civilians were killed. [67] In late October, the Ethiopian Reconciliation Commission stated that it was trying to mediate between the federal and regional governments and the Tigray People's Liberation Front, but that pre-conditions set by all sides were blocking progress.[68]. Also, the Tigray regional special forces and Eritrean forces fought each other near Endabaguna and Kisadgaba. [155], In February 2021, it was reported by GOAL Ethiopia, IRC, MCMDO, MSF-Spain and World Vision, that nearly one in seven children in 16 woredas and town administrations across Tigray were found to be acutely malnourished. The allegiance of the assassins is unknown. International Crisis Group, 2 April 2021: Jonathan Fisher, Meressa Tsehaye Gebrewahd, ‘Game over’? The head of the transport division of Ayder Referral Hospital and his son were beaten by soldiers, and stated that there were many injured who were not being brought to the hospital.[206]. Ethiopia’s army, backed by forces from neighboring Eritrea, has since November been battling fighters loyal to Tigray’s dissident former ruling party, the Tigray People’s Liberation Front. [120], On 26 December 2020, it was reported that Eritrea started withdrawing some of its troops from Tigray. [99] In the late hours of 13 November 2020 TPLF-affilated forces fired a rocket towards the cities of Bahir Dar and Gondar in the Amhara Region. During that time, Ethiopia and Eritrea fought a two-decade border war. A day later, Eritrea, which has denied the allegations of rape and other crimes levelled against its soldiers as “outrageous” and “a vicious attack on the culture and history of our people”, also acknowledges for the first time that its forces are taking part in the conflict and promises to pull them out of Tigray. Debretsion Gebremichael(President of Tigray Region, Chairman of TPLF) Fetlework Gebregziabher(Deputy Chair of TPLF) Getachew Reda(TPLF Spokesperson), (Unknown)[18][19] 1 MiG-23 aircraft[20] 1 Mi-35 helicopter[21][22](Unknown)[23][24][25], The Tigray War is an ongoing armed conflict that began around midnight of 3–4 November 2020 in the Tigray Region of Ethiopia. [50][51] On 25–27 November, a trio of former African presidents appointed by AU chair Cyril Ramaphosa visited Ethiopia with the aim of mediating;[52] they met Abiy and representatives of the Transitional Government of Tigray that officially replaced the TPLF government. The State of Emergency Taskforce stated that the Tigrayan peacepeekers were returned to Ethiopia because of "infiltration of TPLF elements in various entities". While the governments of both Ethiopia and Eritrea have denied such claims, and the UN Secretary General has … The conflict began in November after the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) captured military bases in the northern Ethiopian region. 6: Conflict in the Horn – EEPA", "In Pictures: Eritrean refugees caught in crossfire in Ethiopia", "Ethiopia: Militant attack on passenger bus near Adi Mesino, Tigray Region, leaves at least six people dead, 10 others injured Feb. 18", "Analysis of massacre video raises questions for Ethiopian Army", "Ethiopia Tigray crisis: Abiy issues 'ultimatum' as civilians flee fighting", "Ethiopian prime minister gives Tigrayan rebels 72 hours to surrender", "Ethiopia's Tigray crisis: PM declares assault on regional capital Mekelle", "Ethiopia's military to begin 'final offensive' against Tigray capital", "First foreign aid convoy arrives in capital of Ethiopia's Tigray", "EU postpones $109 million aid to Ethiopia over Tigray access", "UN: Ethiopia may not have control of a large part of Tigray", "BREAKING: Ethiopia expels South Sudan diplomats", "Analysis-Spillover from Tigray conflict adds to pressure on Sudan", "Sudan deploys troops in two additional border areas with Ethiopia – Sudan Tribune: Plural news and views on Sudan", "Soudan: nouvelle montée de tension dans le triangle d'el-Fashaga à la frontière éthiopienne", "Tensions escalate as Sudanese forces gather near Ethiopian border | The Reporter Ethiopia English", "Situation Report EEPA Horn No. But on March 23, Abiy finally admits that Eritrean troops had crossed the border into Tigray. [79], On 4 November 2020, TPLF and Ethiopian National Defense Force (ENDF) soldiers came into conflict during the TPLF attacks on the ENDF Northern Command headquarters in Mekelle, the Fifth Battalion barracks in Dansha, and other Northern Command bases. [173], On 9 February 2021, when religious leaders started a visit to Mekelle organised by federal authorities to show that the situation was "normal", protestors used stones and burnt tyres to block central parts of the town in objection to the claim that the situation had returned to normality. Abiy, the 2019 Nobel Peace Prize winner, promised the air and ground operation would be swift and targeted. Several people were killed and the TPLF claimed the attack was carried out in "self-defence." Up to 40% of Tigray is still under control of the TPLF. In one town over 200 people were killed and the town left deserted. “The humanitarian situation has gotten from bad to worse,” Vanessa Tsehaye, Horn of Africa campaigner for Amnesty, told Al Jazeera on Tuesday. However, violence rumbles on and reports of massacres, rape and widespread hunger continue to emerge as analysts warn of a protracted conflict that risks dragging on for years. READ MORE Ethiopia: Escalating strife with Tigray could lead to civil war. While in Enderta, Abi Adi and Shire, GOAL and IRC reported that 16.6% of children screened had acute malnutrition with 3.5% suffering from severe acute malnutrition. "[78], In late September 2020, the TPLF stated that the constitutional term limit of the HoF, the House of Peoples' Representatives (HoPR), the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers was 5 October 2020, and that for this reason, it would consider "the incumbent" constitutionally illegitimate after 5 October. Conflict between Eritrea and Tigray has long represented a destabilising fault line for Ethiopia as well as for the wider region. The federal Ethiopian authorities accused the TPLF of responsibility. [165] The Ethiopian government cited disinformation and hate speech to justify communications blackouts. [63] Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed, who is of Oromo descent, accused the TPLF Party Members in the Tigray Regional Government of undermining his authority. [62] By contrast, the Tigray authorities saw the refusal to recognize the September 2020 election for the Tigray parliament (which, along with all elections in Ethiopia, had been delayed by the federal elections board because of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ethiopia) as the reason for the outbreak of the conflict. He also calls for special forces from Ethiopia’s Amhara region, which borders Tigray to the south, to be ordered out of disputed areas they have taken. Since then, Ethiopia’s Tigray region has reportedly continued to be affected by incidents of armed conflict. TPLF proposed replacing the government by a technocratic caretaker government as detailed in a plan posted on Facebook by the Coalition of Ethiopian Federalist Forces. [15][140], In response to the killings, Sudan started to build-up its military along the border with Ethiopia. My personal account", "Ethiopie : 'A Aksoum, j'ai aidé à transporter plus de 300 morts, "Eritrea outraged by Amnesty International's "fallacious report, "Situation-Report EEPA Horn No. The region has experienced rising conflict with the … Abiy sacks the head of the military, whose top brass includes many battle-hardened Tigrayans, while on November 9, the federal government carries out more air raids in Tigray, with Abiy saying the operation will be over “soon”. We urge all parties to ensure the safety and protection of civilians", "Ethiopia: UN officials allege war crimes in Tigray | DW | 05.03.2021", "Ethiopia explains legal measures in Tigray to Turkey – Turkey News", "Dışişleri Bakanı Çavuşoğlu: Etiyopya'da çatışmaların arasında kalan Türk vatandaşlar Addis Ababa'ya getirildi", "Turkish FM Çavuşoğlu, Ethiopian counterpart Demeke discuss Tigray conflict, legal measures", "Polish statement regarding the massacre in front of the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion in Aksum", "Ethiopia's conflict spills over border as thousands flee", "Situation Report EEPA Horn No. [141][142][143] On the same day, 150 civilians were reported to have been killed by Eritrean forces in Edaga Hamus. By the evening Prime Minister Abiy declared Ethiopian forces had taken full control of the city. [168] Researchers found that groups use tactics such as "copy and paste" campaigns hosted on websites, which include instructions for opening new accounts, copying and pasting pre-written tweets, and tagging influencers. [88], On the night of 9 to 10 November, 600 civilians, mostly Amhara people and Welkait people, were killed in a massacre in the town of Mai Kadra with machetes and knives used by local militias and police loyal to the TPLF, according to preliminary investigations by Amnesty International and the Ethiopian Human Rights Commission. "[116], According to people who were in Tigray when the war broke out and according to refugees, the EDF would then go on and kill 80–150 in Idaga Hamus on 30 November,[117][118] and kill 17 in Hadish Hiwot on 2 December after forcing the victims to loot the Goda factory. After 10 days of fighting, the United Nations warns of possible war crimes in Tigray. Many of the refugees are fleeing a thrust by Ethiopian forces into the west of Tigray… 18 07 December", "Somalia denies involvement in Ethiopia conflict", "Ex-spy chief claims hundreds of Somali soldiers killed in Tigray region", "Somalia rejects claims hundreds of its soldiers died fighting in Tigray", "Ethiopia Denies Somalia Forces Involved in Fighting in Tigray", "Somalia denies claims its soldiers killed in Tigray war helping ENDF", "Millions of children in Tigray remain out of reach, despite access agreement – UNICEF", "UN 'frustration' at lack of access to Tigray", "Ethiopia's Tigray crisis: About 2.3 million children cut off from aid, UN says", "More than two million children in Ethiopia's Tigray region cut off from humanitarian aid, UN says", "Ethiopia: EU suspends budget support over Tigray conflict", "OCHA: ETHIOPIA – TIGRAY REGION HUMANITARIAN UPDATE", United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, "Tigray refugees in cramped Sudanese camps fear coronavirus outbreak", "More than a million displaced in Tigray as Ethiopian PM warns of 'final' offensive against region", "Ethiopian government begins offensive in Tigray capital city of Mekelle", "Ethnic profiling of Tigrayans heightens tensions in Ethiopia", "Ethiopia: Persistent, credible reports of grave violations in Tigray underscore urgent need for human rights access – Bachelet", "Ethiopia: UN says 20,000 refugees missing in Tigray", "Ethiopia's cracking down in Tigray. 51 – 10 January 2021", "Refugees flee Ethiopia's brutal war with tales of atrocities on both sides", "Massacres in Bora Selewa and Debre Abay", "A graphic footage of the Debre Abay massacre: What do we know about it? About 4.5 million people of are still in need of aid and about 1 million of that are not in accessible areas due to ongoing fighting. As fighting intensifies, there are concerns a conflict in Ethiopia could reverberate across the already fragile Horn of Africa, impacting neighbours Somalia, Eritrea, Djibouti and Sudan. The prime minister blames the attack on the TPLF, which was at the helm of Ethiopia’s governing coalition for nearly 30 years until he took office in 2018. He also suggests they may have been involved in atrocities against civilians. [155], Out of more than 260 health centres in Tigray before the war, only 31 are fully functional, while 7 are partially functional, according to the Emergency Coordination Center. [122] Ethiopians and Eritrean in the diaspora took to the streets to protest and expresses their views. The TPLF repeatedly fired rockets at Eritrea after the conflict began. [65][66], The warming of relations between Abiy Ahmed and Eritrean president Isaias Afwerki, who is poorly regarded in Tigray, was also considered to have fuelled the tension. [7][8] The TPLF stated in late November that it would continue fighting, until the "invaders" are out. After admitting Eritrea’s role, Abiy flies to its capital, Asmara, to meet Eritrean President Isaias Afwerki. 5: Conflict in the Horn – EEPA", "News Highlights Extra No. On 9 November 2020, the leadership of the Tigray Region claimed that more than 10 airstrikes had been carried out against them by Ethiopian federal government. In early November 2020, military confrontations between federal and Tigrayn regional forces in Ethiopia’s Tigray region, which borders both Sudan and Eritrea, led the Government to declare it in a State of Emergency. [105] From 17–19 November, Ethiopian forces captured the cities of Shire, Alamata, Raya, Adwa and Axum. On 2 December 2020 the United Nations was promised humanitarian access to the territory held by the ENDF in the Tigray Region. [148], On 19 January 2021, the Somalian government denied the claim that Somali troops had trained in Eritrea and then deployed in the Tigray Region of Ethiopia. Just over a week later, Ethiopia says Eritrean troops have “started to evacuate” Tigray but on April 15, the UN’s top humanitarian official says there is no evidence of withdrawal and warns the crisis in the embattled region has deteriorated. Abiy was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2019 for resolving a long-running conflict with neighboring Eritrea, ending two decades of hostilities. The Tigray People's Liberation Front, a politically powerful entity that had dominated Ethiopian politics for 27 years as a repressive regime[36] through a one-party dominant system,[36] refused to join the new party. [125] On 20 February, Yemane Niguse, a prominent Tigrayan dissident was assassinated in his birth town of Hewane by unknown assailants. [166] BBC News showed examples of manipulated photos which misleadingly endorsed both the federal Ethiopian government and the TPLF. [96][dubious – discuss] [97][b], On 14 November 2020, Tigrayan forces launched rockets at the Eritrean capital of Asmara, but the missiles missed. For months, Ethiopia and Eritrea flatly deny the involvement of Eritrean forces in the conflict. The TPLF dominated Ethiopian politics for nearly three decades and fought a brutal 1998-2000 border war with Eritrea that left tens of thousands dead. [166] In February, pro-government groups called on their supporters in Ethiopia and the diaspora to combat what they called "TPLF fake news" online. But on March 23 Abiy admits that Eritrean troops had crossed the border into Tigray. The ENDF gained control of Humera on 12 November. [171][172], Several proposals for peace negotiations and mediation were made involving some of the main groups involved in the war. [29][30][31] The Tigrayan Special Forces received reinforcements from defecting ENDF soldiers and civilians joining them and muted into Tigray Defence Forces. [157][158] Later that same month, the UN reported that people in Tigray were fleeing Mekelle. While fighting between the TPLF and Ethiopia continued in Zalambessa and Ethiopian forces starting moving towards Adigrat. [53] An emergency Intergovernmental Authority on Development summit of East African heads of government and state met on 20 December 2020 in Djibouti, resulting in a statement of support for the Ethiopian constitutional order and humanitarian access to Tigray Region. The European Union accused Eritrean troops of fueling the months-long conflict in Ethiopia’s Tigray region and echoed a U.S. call for their withdrawal. On April 27, the UN’s latest humanitarian update for Tigray describes “active hostilities reported in the central, eastern and northwestern parts of the region”. Military sources claimed that Sudan had recaptured Jebel Abutiour. [62] Abiy Ahmed's government considered the September Tigray election to be illegal. ... Porter said Senator Chris Coons had had a successful meeting with Abiy in Addis Ababa to discuss the Tigray conflict. Opponents describe the Tigray People's Liberation Front also as a heavily armed ethnic nationalist[69][70][71][72] paramilitary insurgency,[73] terrorist organization,[74] political party,[75] and former ruling authoritarian regime[76] of Ethiopia. [64] Several journalists were barred by the federal government (at Addis Ababa airport) from travelling to cover Tigray's regional election. The federal government had warned of "no mercy" if TPLF and residents remained intermingled. But activists are spreading the news", "Ethiopia: Diaspora Community to Debunk Fake News Using Mainstream Media", "Ethiopia's Tigray crisis: Fact-checking misleading images", "Ethiopia Airlines accused of ethnic profiling over civil war with Tigray", "Ethiopian police seeking lists of ethnic Tigrayans – U.N. report", "Exclusive: Ethiopia says disarms Tigrayan peacekeepers in Somalia over security", "U.N. [36] The founding and most influential member was the TPLF and the chairperson was Meles Zenawi, who was the Prime Minister of Ethiopia until his death in 2012. As tension continued to grow, a general appointed by Abiy was prevented by the Tigrayan government from taking up his military post. [85][86] During the subsequent days, skirmishes continued and the Ethiopian parliament declared the creation of an interim government for Tigray. On 4 November 2020, TPLF and Ethiopian National Defense Force (ENDF) soldiers came into conflict during the TPLF attacks on the ENDF Northern Command headquarters in Mekelle, the Fifth Battalion barracks in Dansha, and other Northern Command bases. Along with that, an estimated 250 motorized water pumping systems have been out of order, and the status of 11,000 hand pumps in rural areas were unknown. Mutinies were reported among the ENDF troops as some didn't want to fight the TPLF in the mountains. Flags representing the Tigray region of Ethiopia lining a wall in the Tigrayan city of Mekele. [100], On 17 November 2020, the Ethiopian government accused the TPLF of blowing up four main bridges leading to Mekelle. [136], In February 2021, UN chief coordinator of humanitarian efforts Mark Lowcock said that up 40% of Tigray was not controlled by Ethiopian troops. [36][59] In one instance, the regional administration of Tigray is reported to have defied the federal government and refused to allow Ethiopian Federal Police to arrest Getachew Assefa, the former chief of the National Intelligence and Security Services (NISS) of Ethiopia and executive member of TPLF. The claim that Eritrean troops are fighting in Tigray was made by the TPLF, civilians fleeing the conflict, and Eritreans inside and outside the country. During this time a violently enforced curfew was set up by Ethiopian forces along with Eritrean soldiers. Between 10,000 and 25,000 refugees fleeing the conflict have crossed into Sudan from Tigray. Only Eritreans, they occupy the rural areas.”[138], Thousands of people were believed to have been killed in the conflict and around 44,000 fled to Sudan. [145][146], Guld said that the soldiers, aged from 20 to 30 years old, were secretly taken from Mogadishu and sent to Asmara for military training. [60], On 1 December 2019, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed merged the ethnic and region-based parties of the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (which had governed Ethiopia for 27 years) and several opposition parties into his new Prosperity Party. Researchers suggested that reducing access to information could help to create contexts where misinformation can thrive, because it reduces the ability to verify information. 53 – 12 January 2021", "Conflict in Ethiopia's Tigray Province "may be on the edge of Genocide" – to be raised in an urgent question in the House of Lords tomorrow", "US calls for end to conflict in Ethiopia's Tigray: Pompeo", "Biden team anxious over escalating war in U.S. ally Ethiopia", "U.S condemns Tigray forces' attacks on Eritrea", "U.S. to de-link Ethiopian aid pause from dam policy", "US Will Not Resume Aid to Ethiopia for Most Security Programs | Voice of America – English", "Ethiopia reshuffles top officials as Tigray conflict grows", "Tigray conflict: EU humanitarian support to Ethiopian refugees reaching Sudan", "EU considers aid cut to Ethiopia amid violence", "EU suspends Ethiopian budget support over Tigray crisis", "African bloc urges ceasefire as Ethiopia claims airport in Tigray", "the federal govt took bold steps to preserve the unity, stability and respect for the constitutional order of the country", Ethiopia's Tigray region has seen famine before: why it could happen again, People go hungry in Ethiopia's Tigray as conflict marches on, "Tigray (Ethiopia) – In absence of major international diplomacy and rescue, towards a repeat of the great famine of 1984–1985", Petition: Allow immediate and full humanitarian access and stop starvation in war-affected Tigray, "1 dead as soldiers fire on protest in Tigray capital: doctor", "Ethiopia's war against its Tigray region may spread beyond existing borders", "A Group Of Protesters Against The Tigray War Made Their Way To The State Capitol Today", "Demonstrations in the Netherlands against war in Tigray", "Las Vegas Ethiopian community protests war on Tigray region", "Norwegian Ethiopians and Eritreans unite against the war in Tigray", "Louisville's Ethiopian community calls for Biden to add pressure to help end Tigray conflict", "Eye on Africa – Protests take place in South Africa against Ethiopia's Tigray conflict", "Colorado's Ethiopian communities divided on political conflict, worry about their families", "Ethiopian Americans in Aurora pray for loved ones in Tigray conflict", "Ethiopians in Portland protest ongoing Tigray war", "Protest held in downtown Sioux City about Ethiopian government", "NPO Radio 1, 26 January 2021: In Tigray is aan alles tekort: 'Mensen eten takken en bladeren, https://waltainfo.com/diaspora-in-milan-hold-rally-in-support-of-the-government-of-ethiopia/, Tigray: Atlas of the Humanitarian Situation, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tigray_War&oldid=1022133366, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles with failed verification from March 2021, Articles with disputed statements from March 2021, Articles with unsourced statements from March 2021, Articles with unsourced statements from May 2021, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. “The conflict is not over and things are not improving,” Mark Lowcock says as he gives a sobering assessment of the events on the ground, calling the “reports of systematic rape, gang rape and sexual violence … especially disturbing and alarmingly widespread”. Hundreds of people were believed to have died in the conflict, according to government sources. [56], On 11 March 2021, the US ambassador to Ethiopia, Geeta Pasi, announced support for joint humanitarian activities by international partners and the federal government of Ethiopia. Tigray’s battle-hardened, powerful military also took the lead in Ethiopia’s war against neighbouring Eritrea that raged from 1998 to 2000 over disputed border territory. The TPLF denied the accusations. [126], On 1 April 2021, a video surfaced that purports to show Ethiopian troops executing 11 unarmed men before disposing of their bodies near Mahibere Dego. On November 14, TPLF forces fire rockets at Asmara, the capital of neighbouring Eritrea, which has a long-running enmity with the TPLF leadership. Most appeared to be authentic accounts from people seeking to raise international awareness of the conflict in the midst of a communications blackout in Tigray. Soldiers fired at the protestors, killing one. ", "Canada is deeply concerned by the situation in the Tigray region of #Ethiopia. Only 16% of the health facilities had vaccination services and only 17% had maternal services (antenatal care, birth delivery, etc). A soldier later claimed that Ethiopian forces had launched artillery attacks on them and intruded into the Jebel al-Teyyour area, located 7 kilometres inside Sudan. In total 21 Ethiopian soldiers of Tigrayan origin and 20 other Ethiopian soldiers were killed in the internal military mutiny. EU pulls Eritrea funding, citing Tigray conflict, 'lack of interest'. The TPLF denies responsibility and says the reported attack is a pretext for an “invasion”. Eritrea of sending tanks and thousands of soldiers over the border The TPLF, led by its chairman Debretsion Gebremichael, went ahead with regional elections in Tigray in September 2020 in defiance of the federal government, which then declared the Tigray election illegal. [132][133] On 28 November, the Ethiopian government announced that it had taken control of the city, bringing "the last phase of its law enforcement operation" to an end. [124] [137], Refugees told VICE World News that Eritrea is in control of parts of the northern Maekelay Zone and most likely extending beyond the zone. 53 – 12 January 2021", "TPLF asks AU to intervene in Ethiopia's military offensive launched by government", "Tigray crisis: Ethiopian Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed rejects peace talks", "Ramaphosa: Africa concerned about Ethiopian conflict", "The Presidency on visit of the African Union Envoys to Ethiopia", "Communiqué of the 38th extraordinary assembly of IGAD heads of state and government – Djibouti, Republic of Djibouti – 20th December 2020", "Tigray government lays out its terms for peace", "Three Tigray political parties issue demands", "Ethiopia's Hailemariam Desalegn sworn in as prime minister", "Analysis | Why is Ethiopia in upheaval? [111][82] Many residents of Mekelle had already left the city due to airstrikes in and around the city, but many others still remained in the city. Soldiers from Eritrea, long an enemy of Tigray’s now-fugitive leaders, have also been blamed for some of the worst human rights abuses in the Tigray conflict… “Further deterioration is expected as the conflict continues and disrupts the … [117][dubious – discuss], By 16 December 2020, fighting had reached the places of Hagere Selam, Samre, Dogu’a, Kolla Tembien, May Tsemre, and around Maychew. The TPLF claimed these locations contained military terminals that served as bases to carry out airstrikes. Fighting continued to take place around Mekelle and ENDF forces retreated from rural positions towards the Tigray capital of Mekelle. [33] The TPLF vowed to continue fighting. [33], On 28 and 29 November 2020, witnesses and survivors including refugees in Sudan reported that the Eritrean Defence Forces (EDF) carried out the Axum massacre of about 720–800 civilians. However, fighting continues in parts of Tigray. Eritrea’s Alleged Involvement in Ethiopia’s Tigray Conflict. [61], The TPLF used to be part of the Ethiopian governing coalition until its 2019 refusal to merge into the Prosperity Party. Both campaigns produced disinformation and misinformation, though the majority of content produced was activist in nature.
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